Using Ray-tracing to Study Refraction in Exoplanetary Atmospheres

Refraction in planetary atmospheres: improved analytical expressions and comparison with a new ray-tracing algorithm

Authors:

Bétrémieux et al

Abstract:

Atmospheric refraction affects to various degrees exoplanet transit, lunar eclipse, as well as stellar occultation observations. Exoplanet retrieval algorithms often use analytical expressions for the column abundance along a ray traversing the atmosphere as well as for the deflection of that ray, which are first-order approximations valid for low densities in a spherically symmetric homogeneous isothermal atmosphere. We derive new analytical formulae for both of these quantities, which are valid for higher densities, and use them to refine and validate a new ray-tracing algorithm which can be used for arbitrary atmospheric temperature–pressure profiles. We illustrate with simple isothermal atmospheric profiles the consequences of our model for different planets: temperate Earth-like and Jovian-like planets, as well as HD 189733b, and GJ1214b. We find that, for both hot exoplanets, our treatment of refraction does not make much of a difference to pressures as high as 10 atm, but that it is important to consider the variation of gravity with altitude for GJ1214b. However, we find that the temperate atmospheres have an apparent scaleheight significantly smaller than their actual density scaleheight at densities larger than 1 amagat, thus increasing the difficulty of detecting spectral features originating in these regions. These denser atmospheric regions form a refractive boundary layer where column abundances and ray deflection increases dramatically with decreasing impact parameter. This refractive boundary layer mimics a surface, and none of the techniques mentioned above can probe atmospheric regions denser than about 4 amagat on these temperate planets.

Using Refraction to Distinguish Between Cloudy, Hazy and Clearsky Exoplanetary Atmospheres

Discriminating Between Cloudy, Hazy and Clearsky Exoplanets Using Refraction

Authors:

Misra et al

Abstract:

We propose a method to distinguish between cloudy, hazy and clearsky (free of clouds and hazes) exoplanet atmospheres that could be applicable to upcoming large aperture space and ground-based telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) and the European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT). These facilities will be powerful tools for characterizing transiting exoplanets, but only after a considerable amount of telescope time is devoted to a single planet. A technique that could provide a relatively rapid means of identifying haze-free targets (which may be more valuable targets for characterization) could potentially increase the science return for these telescopes. Our proposed method utilizes broadband observations of refracted light in the out-of-transit spectrum. Light refracted through an exoplanet atmosphere can lead to an increase of flux prior to ingress and subsequent to egress. Because this light is transmitted at pressures greater than those for typical cloud and haze layers, the detection of refracted light could indicate a cloud- or haze-free atmosphere. A detection of refracted light could be accomplished in less than 10 hours for Jovian exoplanets with JWST and less than hours for Super-Earths/Mini-Neptunes with E-ELT. We find that this technique is most effective for planets with equilibrium temperatures between 200 and 500 K, which may include potentially habitable planets. A detection of refracted light for a potentially habitable planet would strongly suggest the planet was free of a global cloud or haze layer, and therefore a promising candidate for follow-up observations.

Atmospheric Refraction Places Limits on Probing Habitable Worlds

IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION: HOW DEEPLY CAN WE PROBE EXO-EARTH'S ATMOSPHERES DURING PRIMARY ECLIPSE OBSERVATIONS?

Authors:

Bétrémieux et al

Abstract:

Most models used to predict or fit exoplanet transmission spectra do not include all the effects of atmospheric refraction. Namely, the angular size of the star with respect to the planet can limit the lowest altitude, or highest density and pressure, probed during primary eclipses as no rays passing below this critical altitude can reach the observer. We discuss this geometrical effect of refraction for all exoplanets and tabulate the critical altitude, density, and pressure for an exoplanet identical to Earth with a 1 bar N2/O2 atmosphere as a function of both the incident stellar flux (Venus, Earth, and Mars-like) at the top of the atmosphere and the spectral type (O5-M9) of the host star. We show that such a habitable exo-Earth can be probed to a surface pressure of 1 bar only around the coolest stars. We present 0.4-5.0 μm model transmission spectra of Earth's atmosphere viewed as a transiting exoplanet, and show how atmospheric refraction modifies the transmission spectrum depending on the spectral type of the host star. We demonstrate that refraction is another phenomenon that can potentially explain flat transmission spectra over some spectral regions.