Mass/Radius Relation for Rocky Planets

Mass-Radius Relation for Rocky Planets based on PREM

Authors:

Zeng et al

Abstract:

Several small dense exoplanets are now known, inviting comparisons to Earth and Venus. Such comparisons require translating their masses and sizes to composition models of evolved multi-layer-interior planets. Such theoretical models rely on our understanding of the Earth's interior, as well as independently derived equations of state (EOS), but have so far not involved direct extrapolations from Earth's seismic model -PREM. In order to facilitate more detailed compositional comparisons between small exoplanets and the Earth, we derive here a semi-empirical mass-radius relation for two-layer rocky planets based on PREM: RR⊕=(1.07−0.21⋅CMF)⋅(MM⊕)1/3.7, where CMF stands for Core Mass Fraction. It is applicable to 1∼8 M⊕ and CMF of 0.0∼0.4. Applying this formula to Earth and Venus and several known small exoplanets with radii and masses measured to better than ∼30\% precision gives a CMF fit of 0.26±0.07.

The Effects of Migrating Gas Giants on Terrestrial Exoplanet Formation

Effects of Dynamical Evolution of Giant Planets on the Delivery of Atmophile Elements During Terrestrial Planet Formation

Authors:

Matsumura et al

Abstract:

Recent observations started revealing the compositions of protostellar discs and planets beyond the Solar System. In this paper, we explore how the compositions of terrestrial planets are affected by dynamical evolution of giant planets. We estimate the initial compositions of building blocks of these rocky planets by using a simple condensation model, and numerically study the compositions of planets formed in a few different formation models of the Solar System. We find that the abundances of refractory and moderately volatile elements are nearly independent of formation models, and that all the models could reproduce the abundances of these elements of the Earth. The abundances of atmophile elements, on the other hand, depend on the scattering rate of icy planetesimals into the inner disc as well as the mixing rate of the inner planetesimal disc. For the classical formation model, neither of these mechanisms are efficient and the accretion of atmophile elements during the final assembly of terrestrial planets appears to be difficult. For the Grand Tack model, both of these mechanisms are efficient, which leads to a relatively uniform accretion of atmophile elements in the inner disc. It is also possible to have a "hybrid" scenario where the mixing is not very efficient but the scattering is efficient. The abundances of atmophile elements in this case increases with orbital radii. Such a scenario may occur in some of the extrasolar planetary systems which are not accompanied by giant planets or those without strong perturbations from giants. We also confirm that the Grand Tack scenario leads to the distribution of asteroid analogues where rocky planetesimals tend to exist interior to icy ones, and show that their overall compositions are consistent with S-type and C-type chondrites, respectively.

Most SuperEarths are Mini Neptunes

Super-Earth Atmospheres: Self-Consistent Gas Accretion and Retention

Authors:

Ginzburg et al

Abstract:

Some recently discovered short-period Earth to Neptune sized exoplanets (super Earths) have low observed mean densities which can only be explained by voluminous gaseous atmospheres. Here, we study the conditions allowing the accretion and retention of such atmospheres. We self-consistently couple the nebular gas accretion onto solid cores and the subsequent evolution of gas envelopes following the dispersal of the protoplanetary disk. Specifically, we address mass-loss due to both photo-evaporation and cooling of the planet. We find that planets shed their outer layers (dozens of percents in mass) following the disk's dispersal (even without photo-evaporation), and their atmospheres shrink in a few Myr to a thickness comparable to the radius of the underlying solid core. At this stage, atmospheres containing less particles than the core (equivalently, lighter than a few % of the planet's mass) are blown away completely by heat coming from the cooling core, while heavier atmospheres cool and contract on a timescale of Gyr at most. By relating the mass-loss timescale to the accretion time, we derive limiting constraints, determining which planets can acquire and hold on to their atmospheres. Quantitatively, we analytically identify a Goldilocks region in the mass-temperature plane in which low-density super Earths can be found: planets have to be massive and cold enough to accrete and retain their atmospheres, while not too massive or cold, such that they do not enter runaway accretion and become gas giants (Jupiters). We compare our results to the observed super-Earth population and find that low-density planets are indeed concentrated in the theoretically allowed region. Our analytical and intuitive model can be used to investigate possible super-Earth formation scenarios.

How Planetesimals Start Growing

From Planetesimals to Planets in Turbulent Protoplanetary Disks I. Onset of Runaway Growth

Authors:

Kobayashi et al

Abstract:

When planetesimals grow via collisions in a turbulent disk, stirring through density fluctuation caused by turbulence effectively increases the relative velocities between planetesimals, which suppresses the onset of runaway growth. We investigate the onset of runaway growth in a turbulent disk through simulations that calculate the mass and velocity evolution of planetesimals. When planetesimals are small, the average relative velocity between planetesimals, vr, is much greater than their surface escape velocity, vesc, so that runaway growth does not occur. As planetesimals become large via collisional growth, vr approaches vesc. When vr≈1.5vesc, runaway growth of the planetesimals occurs. During the oligarchic growth subsequent to runaway growth, a small number of planetary embryos produced via runaway growth become massive through collisions with planetesimals with radii of that at the onset of runaway growth, rp,run. We analytically derive rp,run as a function of the turbulent strength. Growing ∼10M⊕ embryos that are suitable to become the cores of Jupiter and Saturn requires rp,run∼100\,km, which is similar to the proposed fossil feature in the size distribution of main belt asteroids. In contrast, the formation of Mars as quickly as suggested from Hf-W isotope studies requires small planetesimals at the onset of runaway growth. Thus, the conditions required to form Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn and the size distribution of the main-belt asteroids indicate that the turbulence increased in amplitude relative to the sound speed with increasing distance from the young Sun.

Protostar L1455 IRS1 Strange Disk

Protostar L1455 IRS1: Rotating Disk Connecting to Filamentary Network

Authors:

Chou et al

Abstract:

We conducted IRAM-30m C18O (2-1) and SMA 1.3mm continuum, 12CO (2-1), and C18O (2-1) observations toward the Class 0/I protostar L1455 IRS1 in Perseus. The IRAM results show L1455 IRS1 located in a dense core of 0.05 pc in size with a mass of 0.35M_sun. Besides, we identify a filamentary structure connecting to the core, exhibiting a velocity gradient of ~8.1 km s-1 pc-1 along its longitudinal axis, leading to a mass flow rate of ~1.8M_sun Myr-1. The C18O component detected in SMA shows a clear velocity gradient of ~150 km s-1 pc-1 perpendicular to the bipolar outflow seen in 12CO, and likely traces the rotational motion. Its measured rotational velocity profile is proportional to r^-0.75, and the specific angular momentum on a 500AU scale is estimated to be ~1.0x10^-3 km s-1 pc. The rotational profile becomes shallower at a turning radius of ~200 AU which is approximately the radius of the 1.3mm continuum component. These results hint the presence of a Keplerian disk with a radius less than 200au around L1455 IRS1 with a protostellar mass of about 0.28M_sun. Previous polarimetric observations show a magnetic field aligned with the outflow axis and perpendicular to the associated filament on a 0.1pc scale, while on the inner 1000 AU scale, the field becomes perpendicular to the outflow axis. The faster envelope rotation seen in L1455 IRS1 could be related to the feeding from the associated filament. The change in the magnetic field orientations is consistent with the estimated increasing rotational energy from large to small scales that overcomes the magnetic field energy, wrapping the field lines and aligning them with the disk velocity gradient. These results are discussed in the context of the interplay between filament, magnetic field, and gas kinematics from large to small scale. Possible emerging trends are explored when further comparing to a larger sample of 8 Class 0/I protostars.

Measuring the Water Snowline in Protoplanetary Disks

Measurements of water surface snow lines in classical protoplanetary disks

Authors:

Blevins et al

Abstract:

We present deep Herschel-PACS spectroscopy of far-infrared water lines from a sample of four protoplanetary disks around solar-mass stars, selected to have strong water emission at mid-infrared wavelengths. By combining the new Herschel spectra with archival Spitzer-IRS spectroscopy, we retrieve a parameterized radial surface water vapor distribution from 0.1-100 AU using two-dimensional dust and line radiative transfer modeling. The surface water distribution is modeled with a step model comprising of a constant inner and outer relative water abundance and a critical radius at which the surface water abundance is allowed to change. We find that the four disks have critical radii of ∼3−11 AU, at which the surface water abundance decreases by at least 5 orders of magnitude. The measured values for the critical radius are consistently smaller than the location of the surface snow line, as predicted by the observed spectral energy distribution. This suggests that the sharp drop-off of the surface water abundance is not solely due to the local gas-solid balance, but may also be driven by the de-activation of gas-phase chemical pathways to water below 300 K. Assuming a canonical gas-to-dust ratio of 100, as well as coupled gas and dust temperatures Tgas=Tdust, the best-fit inner water abundances become implausibly high (0.01-1.0 H2−1). Conversely, a model in which the gas and dust temperatures are decoupled leads to canonical inner disk water abundances of ∼10−4H−12, while retaining gas-to-dust ratios of 100. That is, the evidence for gas-dust decoupling in disk surfaces is stronger than for enhanced gas-to-dust ratios.

Long-Term Evolution of Dead Zones in Protoplanetary Disks

Rossby Wave Instability and Long-Term Evolution of Dead Zones in Protoplanetary Discs

Authors:

Miranda et al

Abstract:

The physical mechanism of angular momentum transport in poorly ionized regions of protoplanetary discs, the dead zones (DZs), is not understood. The presence of a DZ naturally leads to conditions susceptible to the Rossby wave instability (RWI), which produces vortices and spiral density waves that may revive the DZ and be responsible for observed large-scale disc structures. We present a series of two-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations to investigate the role of the RWI in DZs, including its impact on the long-term evolution of the disc and its morphology. The nonlinear RWI can generate Reynolds stresses (effective α parameter) as large as 0.01−0.05 in the DZ, helping to sustain quasi-steady accretion throughout the disc. It also produces novel disc morphologies, including azimuthal asymmetries with m=1,2, and atypical vortex shapes. The angular momentum transport strength and morphology are most sensitive to two parameters: the radial extent of the DZ and the disc viscosity. The largest Reynolds stresses are produced when the radial extent of the DZ is less than its distance to the central star. Such narrow DZs lead to a single vortex or two coherent antipodal vortices in the quasi-steady state. The edges of wider DZs evolve separately, resulting in two independent vortices and reduced angular momentum transport efficiency. In either case, we find that, because of the Reynolds stresses generated by the nonlinear RWI, gravitational instability is unlikely to play a role in angular momentum transport across the DZ, unless the accretion rate is sufficiently high.

FUV Irradiated Disk Atmospheres: Lyα and the Origin of Hot H2 Emission

FUV Irradiated Disk Atmospheres: Lyα and the Origin of Hot H2 Emission

Authors:

Ádámkovics et al

Abstract:

Protoplanetary disks are strongly irradiated by a stellar FUV spectrum that is dominated by Lyα photons. We investigate the impact of stellar Lyα irradiation on the terrestrial planet region of disks (≲1AU) using an updated thermal-chemical model of a disk atmosphere irradiated by stellar FUV and X-rays. The radiative transfer of Lyα is implemented in a simple approach that includes scattering by H I and absorption by molecules and dust. Because of their non-radial propagation path, scattered Lyα photons deposit their energy deeper in the disk atmosphere than the radially propagating FUV continuum photons. We find that Lyα has a significant impact on the thermal structure of the atmosphere. Photochemical heating produced by scattered Lyα photons interacting with water vapor and OH leads to a layer of hot (1500 - 2500 K) molecular gas. The temperature in the layer is high enough to thermally excite the H2 to vibrational levels from which they can be fluoresced by Lyα to produce UV fluorescent H2 emission. The resulting atmospheric structure may help explain the origin of UV fluorescent H2 that is commonly observed from classical T Tauri stars.

Radiative Ablation of Disks Around O and B Stars

Radiative Ablation of Disks Around Massive Stars

Authors:

Kee et al

Abstract:

Hot, massive stars (spectral types O and B) have extreme luminosities (104−106L⊙) that drive strong stellar winds through UV line-scattering. Some massive stars also have disks, formed by either decretion from the star (as in the rapidly rotating "Classical Be stars"), or accretion during the star's formation. This dissertation examines the role of stellar radiation in driving (ablating) material away from these circumstellar disks.

A key result is that the observed month to year decay of Classical Be disks can be explained by line-driven ablation without, as previously done, appealing to anomalously strong viscous diffusion. Moreover, the higher luminosity of O stars leads to ablation of optically thin disks on dynamical timescales of order a day, providing a natural explanation for the lack of observed Oe stars. In addition to the destruction of Be disks, this dissertation also introduces a model for their formation by coupling observationally inferred non-radial pulsation modes and rapid stellar rotation to launch material into orbiting Keplerian disks.

In contrast to such Be decretion disks, star-forming accretion disks are much denser and so are generally optically thick to continuum processes. To circumvent the computational challenges associated with radiation hydrodynamics through optically thick media, we develop an approximate method for treating continuum absorption in the limit of geometrically thin disks. The comparison of ablation with and without continuum absorption shows that accounting for disk optical thickness leads to less than a 50% reduction in ablation rate, implying that ablation rate depends mainly on stellar properties like luminosity.

Evidence Lithium Enhancement of a Star Indicates Consumption of an ExoPlanet

A search for Li-rich giants in a sample of 12 open clusters: Li enhancement in two stars with substellar companions

Authors:

Delgado Mena et al

Abstract:

The aim of this work is to search for Li-rich giants in a sample of clusters where planets have been searched, thus we can study the planet engulfment scenario to explain Li replenishment using a proper comparison sample of stars without detected giant planets. We derived Li abundances for a sample of 67 red giant stars in 12 different open clusters using standard spectral synthesis techniques and high resolution spectra (from HARPS and UVES). We also determined masses, ages and radius from PARSEC stellar isochrones to constrain the evolutionary stage of these stars. We find three stars in different clusters with clearly enhanced Li abundances compared to other stars within the cluster. Interestingly, the only two stars with a detected substellar companion in our sample belong to that group. One of the planet hosts, NGC2423No3, might lie close to the luminosity bump on the HR diagram, a phase where Li production by the Cameron-Fowler process is supported by extra-mixing to bring fresh Li up to the surface. On the other hand, NGC4349No127 is a more massive and more evolved giant that does not seem to be in the evolutionary phase where other Li-rich stars are found. We discuss the possibility that the Li enhancement of this star is triggered by the engulfment of a planet, considering that close-in planets hardly survive the RGB-tip and the early-AGB phases.

Binary Star System AK Sco Appears to Have Circumbinary Planets

Detection of Sharp Symmetric Features in the Circumbinary Disk Around AK Sco

Authors:

Jansen et al

Abstract:

The Search for Planets Orbiting Two Stars (SPOTS) survey aims to study the formation and distribution of planets in binary systems by detecting and characterizing circumbinary planets and their formation environments through direct imaging. With the SPHERE Extreme Adaptive Optics instrument, a good contrast can be achieved even at small (less than 300 mas) separations from bright stars, which enables studies of planets and disks in a separation range that was previously inaccessible. Here, we report the discovery of resolved scattered light emission from the circumbinary disk around the well-studied young double star AK Sco, at projected separations in the ~13--40 AU range. The sharp morphology of the imaged feature is surprising, given the smooth appearance of the disk in its spectral energy distribution. We show that the observed morphology can be represented either as a highly eccentric ring around AK Sco, or as two separate spiral arms in the disk, wound in opposite directions. The relative merits of these interpretations are discussed, as well as whether these features may have been caused by one or several circumbinary planets interacting with the disk.

K2 Observations of Neptune Give Hints of Brown Dwarfs' Atmospheres

Neptune's Dynamic Atmosphere from Kepler K2 Observations: Implications for Brown Dwarf Light Curve Analyses

Authors:

Simon et al

Abstract:

Observations of Neptune with the Kepler Space Telescope yield a 49-day light curve with 98% coverage at a 1-minute cadence. A significant signature in the light curve comes from discrete cloud features. We compare results extracted from the light curve data with contemporaneous disk-resolved imaging of Neptune from the Keck 10-meter telescope at 1.65 microns and Hubble Space Telescope visible imaging acquired 9 months later. This direct comparison validates the feature latitudes assigned to the K2 light curve periods based on Neptune's zonal wind profile, and confirms observed cloud feature variability. Although Neptune's clouds vary in location and intensity on short and long time scales, a single large discrete storm seen in Keck imaging dominates the K2 and Hubble light curves; smaller or fainter clouds likely contribute to short-term brightness variability. The K2 Neptune light curve, in conjunction with our imaging data, provides context for the interpretation of current and future brown dwarf and extrasolar planet variability measurements. In particular we suggest that the balance between large, relatively stable, atmospheric features and smaller, more transient, clouds controls the character of substellar atmospheric variability. Atmospheres dominated by a few large spots may show inherently greater light curve stability than those which exhibit a greater number of smaller features.

Rotation and Winds of hot Jupiter HD 189733b

Rotation and winds of exoplanet HD 189733 b measured with high-dispersion transmission spectroscopy

Authors:

Brogi et al

Abstract:

Giant exoplanets orbiting very close to their parent star (hot Jupiters) are subject to tidal forces expected to synchronize their rotational and orbital periods on short timescales (tidal locking). However, spin rotation has never been measured directly for hot Jupiters. Furthermore, their atmospheres can show equatorial super-rotation via strong eastward jet streams, and/or high-altitude winds flowing from the day- to the night-side hemisphere. Planet rotation and atmospheric circulation broaden and distort the planet spectral lines to an extent that is detectable with measurements at high spectral resolution. We observed a transit of the hot Jupiter HD 189733 b around 2.3 {\mu}m and at a spectral resolution of R~105 with CRIRES at the ESO Very Large Telescope. After correcting for the stellar absorption lines and their distortion during transit (the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect), we detect the absorption of carbon monoxide and water vapor in the planet transmission spectrum by cross-correlating with model spectra. The signal is maximized (7.6{\sigma}) for a planet rotational velocity of (3.4+1.3−2.1) km/s, corresponding to a rotational period of (1.7+2.9−0.4) days. This is consistent with the planet orbital period of 2.2 days and therefore with tidal locking. We find that the rotation of HD 189733 b is longer than 1 day (3{\sigma}). The data only marginally (1.5{\sigma}) prefer models with rotation versus models without rotation. We measure a small day- to night-side wind speed of (−1.7+1.1−1.2) km/s. Compared to the recent detection of sodium blue-shifted by (8±2) km/s, this likely implies a strong vertical wind shear between the pressures probed by near-infrared and optical transmission spectroscopy.

Modeling hot Jupiters CoRoT-1b, TrES-2b and HAT-P-7b's Atmospheric Heat Circulation

Inferring heat recirculation and albedo for exoplanetary atmospheres: Comparing optical phase curves and secondary eclipse data

Authors:

von Paris et al

Abstract:

Basic atmospheric properties such as albedo and heat redistribution between day and nightside have been inferred for a number of planets using observations of secondary eclipses and thermal phase curves. Optical phase curves have not yet been used to constrain these atmospheric properties consistently. We re-model previously published phase curves of CoRoT-1b, TrES-2b and HAT-P-7b and infer albedos and recirculation efficiencies. These are then compared to previous estimates based on secondary eclipse data. We use a physically consistent model to construct optical phase curves. This model takes Lambertian reflection, thermal emission, ellipsoidal variations and Doppler boosting into account. CoRoT-1b shows a non-negligible scattering albedo (0.11

Clouds and Haze are Hiding Water in hot Jupiter Atmospheres

A continuum from clear to cloudy hot-Jupiter exoplanets without primordial water depletion

Authors:

Sing et al

Abstract:

Thousands of transiting exoplanets have been discovered, but spectral analysis of their atmospheres has so far been dominated by a small number of exoplanets and data spanning relatively narrow wavelength ranges (such as 1.1 to 1.7 {\mu}m). Recent studies show that some hot-Jupiter exoplanets have much weaker water absorption features in their near-infrared spectra than predicted. The low amplitude of water signatures could be explained by very low water abundances, which may be a sign that water was depleted in the protoplanetary disk at the planet's formation location, but it is unclear whether this level of depletion can actually occur. Alternatively, these weak signals could be the result of obscuration by clouds or hazes, as found in some optical spectra. Here we report results from a comparative study of ten hot Jupiters covering the wavelength range 0.3-5 micrometres, which allows us to resolve both the optical scattering and infrared molecular absorption spectroscopically. Our results reveal a diverse group of hot Jupiters that exhibit a continuum from clear to cloudy atmospheres. We find that the difference between the planetary radius measured at optical and infrared wavelengths is an effective metric for distinguishing different atmosphere types. The difference correlates with the spectral strength of water, so that strong water absorption lines are seen in clear-atmosphere planets and the weakest features are associated with clouds and hazes. This result strongly suggests that primordial water depletion during formation is unlikely and that clouds and hazes are the cause of weaker spectral signatures.

Magellen Adaptive Optics Observe β Pictoris b

MAGELLAN ADAPTIVE OPTICS FIRST-LIGHT OBSERVATIONS OF THE EXOPLANET β PIC b. II. 3–5 μm DIRECT IMAGING WITH MagAO+Clio, AND THE EMPIRICAL BOLOMETRIC LUMINOSITY OF A SELF-LUMINOUS GIANT PLANET

Authors:

Morzinski et al

Abstract:

Young giant exoplanets are a unique laboratory for understanding cool, low-gravity atmospheres. A quintessential example is the massive extrasolar planet β Pic b, which is 9 AU from and embedded in the debris disk of the young nearby A6V star β Pictoris. We observed the system with first light of the Magellan Adaptive Optics (MagAO) system. In Paper I we presented the first CCD detection of this planet with MagAO+VisAO. Here we present four MagAO+Clio images of β Pic b at 3.1 μm, 3.3 μm, L', and ${M}^{\prime },$ including the first observation in the fundamental CH4 band. To remove systematic errors from the spectral energy distribution (SED), we re-calibrate the literature photometry and combine it with our own data, for a total of 22 independent measurements at 16 passbands from 0.99 to 4.8 μm. Atmosphere models demonstrate the planet is cloudy but are degenerate in effective temperature and radius. The measured SED now covers >80% of the planet's energy, so we approach the bolometric luminosity empirically. We calculate the luminosity by extending the measured SED with a blackbody and integrating to find log(${{\mathcal{L}}}_{\mathrm{bol}}$/${{\mathcal{L}}}_{\odot }$) $\;=\;-3.78\pm 0.03.$ From our bolometric luminosity and an age of 23 ± 3 Myr, hot-start evolutionary tracks give a mass of 12.7 ± 0.3 ${{\mathcal{M}}}_{\mathrm{Jup}}$, radius of 1.45 ± 0.02 ${{\mathcal{R}}}_{\mathrm{Jup}}$, and Teff of 1708 ± 23 K (model-dependent errors not included). Our empirically determined luminosity is in agreement with values from atmospheric models (typically $-3.8$ dex), but brighter than values from the field-dwarf bolometric correction (typically $-3.9$ dex), illustrating the limitations in comparing young exoplanets to old brown dwarfs.

Dust Coagulation in the Vicinity of a Gap-Opening Jupiter-Mass Planet

Dust Coagulation in the Vicinity of a Gap-Opening Jupiter-Mass Planet

Authors:

Carballido et al

Abstract:

We analyze the coagulation of dust in and around a gap opened by a Jupiter-mass planet. To this end, we carry out a high-resolution magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulation of the gap environment, which is turbulent due to the magnetorotational instability. From the MHD simulation, we obtain values of the gas velocities, densities and turbulent stresses a) close to the gap edge, b) in one of the two gas streams that accrete onto the planet, c) inside the low-density gap, and d) outside the gap. The MHD values are then supplied to a Monte Carlo dust coagulation algorithm, which models grain sticking and compaction. We consider two dust populations for each region: one whose initial size distribution is monodisperse, with monomer radius equal to 1 μm, and another one whose initial size distribution follows the Mathis-Rumpl-Nordsieck distribution for interstellar dust grains, with an initial range of monomer radii between 0.5 and 10 μm. Our Monte Carlo calculations show initial growth of dust aggregates followed by compaction in all cases but one, that of aggregates belonging to the initially monodisperse population subject to gas conditions outside the gap. In this latter case, the mass-weighted (MW) average porosity of the population reaches extremely high final values of 98\%. The final MW porosities in all other cases range between 30\% and 82\%. The efficiency of compaction is due to high turbulent relative speeds between dust particles. Future studies will need to explore the effect of different planet masses and electric charge on grains.

EPIC 203311200b is a Single Transit Jovian Candidate With a 540 Day Orbit Along With 6 Other Candidates

Single Transit Candidates from K2: Detection and Period Estimation

Authors:

Osborn et al

Abstract:

Photometric surveys such as Kepler have the precision to identify exoplanet and eclipsing binary candidates from only a single transit. K2, with its 75d campaign duration, is ideally suited to detect significant numbers of single-eclipsing objects. Here we develop a Bayesian transit-fitting tool ("Namaste: An Mcmc Analysis of Single Transit Exoplanets") to extract orbital information from single transit events. We achieve favourable results testing this technique on known Kepler planets, and apply the technique to 7 candidates identified from a targeted search of K2 campaigns 1, 2 and 3. We find EPIC203311200 to host an excellent exoplanet candidate with a period, assuming zero eccentricity, of 540+410−230 days and a radius of 0.51±0.05RJup. We also find six further transit candidates for which more follow-up is required to determine a planetary origin. Such a technique could be used in the future with TESS, PLATO and ground-based photometric surveys such as NGTS, potentially allowing the detection of planets in reach of confirmation by Gaia.

New Imaging Technique Might Help Find Terrestrial Exoplanets

One of the biggest quests in astrophysics is to find Earth-like planets around other stars - places where life may exist. Regular telescopes are not good at directly imaging such small objects because a host star's light generally drowns out the relatively dimmer light of a potential planet.

But a new development in space imaging may solve that vexing problem.

A study led by Florida Institute of Technology astrophysicist Daniel Batcheldor has demonstrated that a charge injection device, or CID, has the ability to capture light from objects tens of millions of times fainter than another object in the same picture. An exoplanet next to bright star is one such example. This ability is a result of how the CID is used as a type of camera: each individual pixel works independently and uses a special indexing system. Very bright pixels get addressed very quickly, while the faint pixels are allowed to carry on gathering the fainter light.

"If this technology can be added to future space missions, it may help us make some profound discoveries regarding our place in the universe," Batcheldor said.

link.

Dynamical Constraints on Outer Planets in Super-Earth Systems

Dynamical Constraints on Outer Planets in Super-Earth Systems

Authors:

Read et al

Abstract:

This paper considers secular interactions within multi-planet systems. In particular we consider dynamical evolution of known planetary systems resulting from an additional hypothetical planet on an eccentric orbit. We start with an analytical study of a general two-planet system, showing that a planet on an elliptical orbit transfers all of its eccentricity to an initially circular planet if the two planets have comparable orbital angular momenta. Application to the single Super-Earth system HD38858 shows that an additional hypothetical planet below current radial velocity (RV) constraints with {\textit{Msini}}=3-10M⊕, semi-major axis 1-10au and eccentricity 0.2-0.8 is unlikely to be present from the eccentricity that would be excited in the known planet (albeit cyclically). However, additional planets in proximity to the known planet could stabilise the system against secular perturbations from outer planets. Moreover these additional planets can have an {\textit{Msini}} below RV sensitivity and still affect their neighbours. For example, application to the two Super-Earth system 61Vir shows that an additional hypothetical planet cannot excite high eccentricities in the known planets, unless its mass and orbit lie in a restricted area of parameter space. Inner planets in HD38858 below RV sensitivity would also modify conclusions above about excluded parameter space. This suggests that it may be possible to infer the presence of additional stabilising planets in systems with an eccentric outer planet and an inner planet on an otherwise suspiciously circular orbit. This reinforces the point that the full complement of planets in a system is needed to assess its dynamical state.

The Three ExoPlanets of Wolf 1061 (Gliese 628)

Three planets orbiting Wolf 1061

Authors:

Wright et al

Abstract:

We use archival HARPS spectra to detect three planets orbiting the M3 dwarf Wolf1061 (GJ 628). We detect a 1.36 Mearth minimum-mass planet with an orbital period P = 4.888d (Wolf1061b), a 4.25 Mearth minimum-mass planet with orbital period P = 17.867d (Wolf1061c), and a likely 5.21 Mearth minimum-mass planet with orbital period P = 67.274d (Wolf1061d). All of the planets are of sufficiently low mass that they may be rocky in nature. The 17.867d planet falls within the habitable zone for Wolf 1061 and the 67.274d planet falls just outside the outer boundary of the habitable zone. There are no signs of activity observed in the bisector spans, cross-correlation full-width-half-maxima, Calcium H & K indices, NaD indices, or H-alpha indices near the planetary periods. We use custom methods to generate a cross-correlation template tailored to the star. The resulting velocities do not suffer the strong annual variation observed in the HARPS DRS velocities. This differential technique should deliver better exploitation of the archival HARPS data for the detection of planets at extremely low amplitudes.

There are two Populations of SuperEarths

Correlations between compositions and orbits established by the giant impact era of planet formation

Authors:

Dawson et al

Abstract:

The giant impact phase of terrestrial planet formation establishes connections between super-Earths' orbital properties (semimajor axis spacings, eccentricities, mutual inclinations) and interior compositions (the presence or absence of gaseous envelopes). Using N-body simulations and analytic arguments, we show that spacings derive not only from eccentricities, but also from inclinations. Flatter systems attain tighter spacings, a consequence of an eccentricity equilibrium between gravitational scatterings, which increase eccentricities, and mergers, which damp them. Dynamical friction by residual disk gas plays a critical role in regulating mergers and in damping inclinations and eccentricities. Systems with moderate gas damping and high solid surface density spawn gas-enveloped super-Earths with tight spacings, small eccentricities, and small inclinations. Systems in which super-Earths coagulate without as much ambient gas, in disks with low solid surface density, produce rocky planets with wider spacings, larger eccentricities, and larger mutual inclinations. A combination of both populations can reproduce the observed distributions of spacings, period ratios, transiting planet multiplicities, and transit duration ratios exhibited by Kepler super-Earths. The two populations, both formed in situ, also help to explain observed trends of eccentricity vs. planet size, and bulk density vs. method of mass measurement (radial velocities vs. transit timing variations).

Very Thick, High Clouds of Salt or Sulfides can Produce Flat Transmission Spectra on Mini Neptunes and SuperEarths

THERMAL EMISSION AND REFLECTED LIGHT SPECTRA OF SUPER EARTHS WITH FLAT TRANSMISSION SPECTRA

Authors:

Morley et al

Abstract:

Planets larger than Earth and smaller than Neptune are some of the most numerous in the galaxy, but observational efforts to understand this population have proved challenging because optically thick clouds or hazes at high altitudes obscure molecular features. We present models of super Earths that include thick clouds and hazes and predict their transmission, thermal emission, and reflected light spectra. Very thick, lofted clouds of salts or sulfides in high metallicity (1000× solar) atmospheres create featureless transmission spectra in the near-infrared. Photochemical hazes with a range of particle sizes also create featureless transmission spectra at lower metallicities. Cloudy thermal emission spectra have muted features more like blackbodies, and hazy thermal emission spectra have emission features caused by an inversion layer at altitudes where the haze forms. Close analysis of reflected light from warm (~400–800 K) planets can distinguish cloudy spectra, which have moderate albedos (0.05–0.20), from hazy models, which are very dark (0.0–0.03). Reflected light spectra of cold planets (~200 K) accessible to a space-based visible light coronagraph will have high albedos and large molecular features that will allow them to be more easily characterized than the warmer transiting planets. We suggest a number of complementary observations to characterize this population of planets, including transmission spectra of hot ($\gtrsim 1000$ K) targets, thermal emission spectra of warm targets using the James Webb Space Telescope, high spectral resolution (R ~ 105) observations of cloudy targets, and reflected light spectral observations of directly imaged cold targets. Despite the dearth of features observed in super Earth transmission spectra to date, different observations will provide rich diagnostics of their atmospheres.

Small Worlds Around Kepler M Dwarfs

They are Small Worlds After All: Revised Properties of Kepler M Dwarf Stars and their Planets

Authors:

Gaidos et al

Abstract:

We classified the reddest (r-J greater than 2.2) stars observed by the NASA Kepler mission into main sequence dwarf or evolved giant stars and determined the properties of 4216 M dwarfs based on a comparison of available photometry with that of nearby calibrator stars, as well as available proper motions and spectra. We then revised the properties of candidate transiting planets using the stellar parameters, high-resolution imaging and aperture masking to identify companion stars, and refitting of the light curves to identify the component most likely to host the planet. We inferred the intrinsic distribution of M dwarf planets using the method of iterative Monte Carlo simulation. We compared several models of planet orbital geometry and clustering and found that one where planets are exponentially distributed and almost precisely coplanar best describes the distribution of multi-planet systems. We determined that Kepler M dwarfs host an average of 1.9+/-0.3 planets with radii of 1-4Re and orbital periods of 1.5-180d. The radius distribution peaks at ~1.2Re and is essentially zero at 4Re, although we identify three larger giant planet candidates other than the previously confirmed Kepler-45b. There is suggestive but not significant evidence that the radius distribution varies with orbital period. The distribution with logarithmic orbital period is flat except for a decline for orbits less than a few days. Twelve candidate planets, including two Jupiter-size objects, experience an irradiance below the threshold level for a runaway greenhouse on an Earth-like planet and are thus in a "habitable zone".

The Inner Edge of the Habitable Zone is Highly Contingent for Tidal Locked Terrestrial Exoplanets

The inner edge of the habitable zone for synchronously rotating planets around low-mass stars using general circulation models

Authors:

Kopparapu et al

Abstract:

Terrestrial planets at the inner edge of the habitable zone of late-K and M-dwarf stars are expected to be in synchronous rotation, as a consequence of strong tidal interactions with their host stars. Previous global climate model (GCM) studies have shown that, for slowly-rotating planets, strong convection at the substellar point can create optically thick water clouds, increasing the planetary albedo, and thus stabilizing the climate against a thermal runaway. However these studies did not use self-consistent orbital/rotational periods for synchronously rotating planets placed at different distances from the host star. Here we provide new estimates of the inner edge of the habitable zone for synchronously rotating terrestrial planets around late-K and M-dwarf stars using a 3-D Earth-analog GCM with self-consistent relationships between stellar metallicity, stellar effective temperature, and the planetary orbital/rotational period. We find that both atmospheric dynamics and the efficacy of the substellar cloud deck are sensitive to the precise rotation rate of the planet. Around mid-to-late M-dwarf stars with low metallicity, planetary rotation rates at the inner edge of the HZ become faster, and the inner edge of the habitable zone is farther away from the host stars than in previous GCM studies. For an Earth-sized planet, the dynamical regime of the substellar clouds begins to transition as the rotation rate approaches ~10 days. These faster rotation rates produce stronger zonal winds that encircle the planet and smear the substellar clouds around it, lowering the planetary albedo, and causing the onset of the water-vapor greenhouse climatic instability to occur at up to ~25% lower incident stellar fluxes than found in previous GCM studies. For mid-to-late M-dwarf stars with high metallicity and for mid-K to early-M stars, we agree with previous studies.

 

SETI Lecture: Free Floating Planets & Brown Dwarfs

Recurring Occultations of RW Aurigae by Coagulated Dust

Recurring Occultations of RW Aurigae by Coagulated Dust in the Tidally Disrupted Circumstellar Disk

Authors:

Rodriguez et al

Abstract:

We present photometric observations of RW Aurigae, a Classical T Tauri system, that reveal two remarkable dimming events. These events are similar to that which we observed in 2010-2011, which was the first such deep dimming observed in RW Aur in a century's worth of photometric monitoring. We suggested the 2010-2011 dimming was the result of an occultation of the star by its tidally disrupted circumstellar disk. In 2012-2013, the RW Aur system dimmed by ~0.7 mag for ~40 days and in 2014/2015 the system dimmed by ~2 mag for >250 days. The ingress/egress duration measurements of the more recent events agree well with those from the 2010-2011 event, providing strong evidence that the new dimmings are kinematically associated with the same occulting source. Therefore, we suggest that both the 2012-2013 and 2014-2015 dimming events, measured using data from the Kilodegree Extremely Little Telescope and the Kutztown University Observatory, are also occultations of RW Aur A by tidally disrupted circumstellar material. Recent hydrodynamical simulations of the eccentric fly-by of RW Aur B suggest the occulting body to be a bridge of material connecting RW Aur A and B. These simulations suggest the possibility of additional occultations, supported by the observations presented in this work. The color evolution of the dimmings suggest that the tidally stripped disk material includes dust grains ranging in size from small grains at the leading edge, typical of star forming regions, to large grains, ices or pebbles producing grey or nearly grey extinction deeper within the occulting material. It is not known whether this material represents arrested planet building prior to the tidal disruption event, or perhaps accelerated planet building as a result of the disruption event, but in any case the evidence suggests the presence of advanced planet building material in the space between RW Aur A and B.

A Review of Gaia

Gaia

Authors:

Cacciari et al

Abstract:

A review of the Gaia mission and its science performance after one year of operations will be presented, and the contribution to reconstructing the history of the Milky Way will be outlined.

Observing the Spiral Armed Disk of Herbig B[e] star HD 50138

Time-dependent spectral-feature variations of stars displaying the B[e] phenomenon III. HD 50138

Authors:

Jeřábková et al

Abstract:

We analyse spectroscopic observations of the B[e] star HD 50138 (MWC 158, V743 Mon, or IRAS 06491-0654), a member of the FS CMa group, obtained over the last twenty years. Four different epochs are identified in the observational data, where the variability of the spectral features is substantially different. Additionally, two long periods of (3 000 +/- 500) and (5 000 +/- 1000) days are found in the variations of the equivalent widths of the H alpha and [OI] 6300 A lines and radial velocities of the H alpha line violet peak. Modest signatures of a regular period of ~34 days in the radial velocities of the H alpha red peak and H beta central depression are found in the season 2013/2014. The H alpha V/R changes indicate a periodicity of ~50 days. The correlations between individual spectral features significantly restricts the model of the object and suggest that it is most likely a binary system with a highly distorted disc with spiral arms around the primary component. At the same time, no obvious signs of the secondary component has been found in the object's spectrum.

Modeling the Protoplanetary Disk of Herbig Ae star HD 144432

Monte-Carlo radiative transfer simulation of the circumstellar disk of the Herbig Ae star HD 144432

Authors:

Chen et al

Abstract:

Studies of pre-transitional disks, with a gap region between the inner infrared-emitting region and the outer disk, are important to improving our understanding of disk evolution and planet formation. Previous infrared interferometric observations have shown hints of a gap region in the protoplanetary disk around the Herbig Ae star HD~144432. We study the dust distribution around this star with two-dimensional radiative transfer modeling. We compare the model predictions obtained via the Monte-Carlo radiative transfer code RADMC-3D with infrared interferometric observations and the {\SED} of HD~144432. The best-fit model that we found consists of an inner optically thin component at $0.21\enDash0.32~\AU$ and an optically thick outer disk at $1.4\enDash10~\AU$. We also found an alternative model in which the inner sub-AU region consists of an optically thin and an optically thick component. Our modeling suggests an optically thin component exists in the inner sub-AU region, although an optically thick component may coexist in the same region. Our modeling also suggests a gap-like discontinuity in the disk of HD~144432.

Debris Disks Around TWA 7, TWA 25, HD 35650, and HD 377

First images of debris disks around TWA 7, TWA 25, HD 35650, and HD 377

Authors:

Choquet et al

Abstract:

We present the first images of four debris disks observed in scattered light around the young (4--250 Myr old) M dwarfs TWA 7 and TWA 25, the K6 star HD 35650, and the G2 star HD 377. We obtained these images by reprocessing archival Hubble Space Telescope NICMOS coronagraph data with modern post-processing techniques as part of the Archival Legacy Investigation of Circumstellar Environments (ALICE) program. All four disks appear faint and compact compared with other debris disks resolved in scattered light. The disks around TWA 25, HD 35650, and HD 377 appear very inclined, while TWA 7's disk is viewed nearly face-on. The surface brightness of HD 35650's disk is strongly asymmetric. These new detections raise the number of disks resolved in scattered light around M and late-K stars from one (the AU Mic system) to four. This new sample of resolved disks enables comparative studies of heretofore scarce debris disks around low-mass stars relative to solar-type stars.

Rapid Radiative Clearing of Protoplanetary Disks

Rapid radiative clearing of protoplanetary discs

Authors:

Haworth et al

Abstract:

The lack of observed transition discs with inner gas holes of radii greater than ~50AU implies that protoplanetary discs dispersed from the inside out must remove gas from the outer regions rapidly. We investigate the role of photoevaporation in the final clearing of gas from low mass discs with inner holes. In particular, we study the so-called "thermal sweeping" mechanism which results in rapid clearing of the disc. Thermal sweeping was originally thought to arise when the radial and vertical pressure scale lengths at the X-ray heated inner edge of the disc match. We demonstrate that this criterion is not fundamental. Rather, thermal sweeping occurs when the pressure maximum at the inner edge of the dust heated disc falls below the maximum possible pressure of X-ray heated gas (which depends on the local X-ray flux). We derive new critical peak volume and surface density estimates for rapid radiative clearing which, in general, result in rapid dispersal happening less readily than in previous estimates. This less efficient clearing of discs by X-ray driven thermal sweeping leaves open the issue of what mechanism can clear gas from the outer disc sufficiently quickly to explain the non-detection of cold gas around weak line T Tauri stars.

The Inner Debris Structure in the Fomalhaut Planetary System

The Inner Debris Structure in the Fomalhaut Planetary System

Authors:

Su et al

Abstract:

Fomalhaut plays an important role in the study of debris disks and small bodies in other planetary systems. The proximity and luminosity of the star make key features of its debris, like the water ice-line, accessible. Here we present ALMA cycle 1, 870 \mu m (345 GHz) observations targeted at the inner part of the Fomalhaut system with a synthesized beam of 0.45"x0.37" (~3 AU linear resolution at the distance of Fomalhaut) and a rms of 26 \mu Jy/beam. The high angular resolution and sensitivity of the ALMA data enable us to place strong constraints on the nature of the warm excess revealed by Spitzer and Herschel observations. We detect a point source at the star position with a total flux consistent with thermal emission from the stellar photosphere. No structures that are brighter than 3\sigma\ are detected in the central 15 AU x 15 AU region. Modeling the spectral energy distribution using parameters expected for a dust-producing planetesimal belt indicates a radial location in the range ~8-15 AU. This is consistent with the location where ice sublimates in Fomalhaut, i.e., an asteroid-belt analog. The 3\sigma\ upper limit for such a belt is less than 1.3 mJy at 870 \mu m. We also interpret the 2 and 8-13 \mu m interferometric measurements to reveal the structure in the inner 10 AU region as dust naturally connected to this proposed asteroid belt by Poynting-Robertson drag, dust sublimation, and magnetically trapped nano grains.

Detecting Extrasolar Asteroid Belts Through Microlensing

Detecting Extrasolar Asteroid Belts Through Their Microlensing Signatures

Authors:

Lake et al

Abstract:

We propose that extrasolar asteroid belts can be detected through their gravitational microlensing signatures. Asteroid belt + star lens systems create so-called "pseudo-caustics", regions in the source plane where the magnification exhibits a finite but discontinuous jump. These features allow such systems to generate distinctive microlensing light curves across a wide region of belt parameter space and possess remarkably large lensing cross-sections. Sample light curves for a range of asteroid belt parameters are presented. In the near future, space-based microlensing surveys (e.g., WFIRST) may be able to discover extrasolar asteroid belts with masses of the order of 0.1M⊕.

Evidence of gas From Disintegrating Extrasolar Asteroid Around WD 1145+017

Evidence for Gas from a Disintegrating Extrasolar Asteroid

Authors:

Xu et al

Abstract:

We report high-resolution spectroscopic observations of WD 1145+017 -- a white dwarf that recently has been found to be transitted by multiple asteroid-sized objects within its tidal radius. We have discovered numerous circumstellar absorption lines with linewidths of ∼ 300 km s−1 from Mg, Ca, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe and Ni, possibly from several gas streams produced by collisions among the actively disintegrating objects. The atmosphere of WD 1145+017 is polluted with 11 heavy elements, including O, Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Ti, V:, Cr, Mn, Fe and Ni. Evidently, we are witnessing the active disintegration and subsequent accretion of an extrasolar asteroid.

Hubble Directly Images Cloudy Super Jupiter's Rotation as it Orbits a Brown Dwarf

Astronomers using NASA's Hubble Space Telescope have measured the rotation rate of an extreme exoplanet by observing the varied brightness in its atmosphere. This is the first measurement of the rotation of a massive exoplanet using direct imaging.

"The result is very exciting," said Daniel Apai of the University of Arizona in Tucson, leader of the Hubble investigation. "It gives us a unique technique to explore the atmospheres of exoplanets and to measure their rotation rates."

The planet, called 2M1207b, is about four times more massive than Jupiter and is dubbed a "super-Jupiter." It is a companion to a failed star known as a brown dwarf, orbiting the object at a distance of 5 billion miles. By contrast, Jupiter is approximately 500 million miles from the sun. The brown dwarf is known as 2M1207. The system resides 170 light-years away from Earth.

link.  2nd link.

paper here.

WFIRST Gets Profiled

NASA said Thursday that it's getting down to business building a new telescope that could get us a step closer to finding E.T. and perhaps reveal other mysteries of the universe along the way.

The Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) will have capabilities that make it similar to taking Hubble's telescope and putting a panoramic lens on it. It will carry a wide-field instrument allowing it to capture images with the same depth and quality as Hubble, but covering 100 times its field of view.

In addition to having such a wide view of parts of space, WFIRST will also sport a coronagraph that can block the glare from individual stars to better characterize not only planets orbiting those, but the atmospheres of planets as well.

"It will also develop technology that will pave the way for finding and characterizing Earth-like planets in the future," said Nikole Lewis of the Space Telescope Science Institute in a statement.

link.

Magnetically Controlled Outflows From Hot Jupiters

Hot Jupiter Breezes: Time-dependent Outflows from Extrasolar Planets

Authors:

Owen et al

Abstract:

We explore the dynamics of magnetically controlled outflows from Hot Jupiters, where these flows are driven by UV heating from the central star. In these systems, some of the open field lines do not allow the flow to pass smoothly through the sonic point, so that steady-state solutions do not exist in general. This paper focuses on this type of magnetic field configuration, where the resulting flow becomes manifestly time-dependent. We consider the case of both steady heating and time-variable heating, and find the time scales for the corresponding time variations of the outflow. Because the flow cannot pass through the sonic transition, it remains subsonic and leads to so-called breeze solutions. One manifestation of the time variability is that the flow samples a collection of different breeze solutions over time, and the mass outflow rate varies in quasi-periodic fashion. Because the flow is subsonic, information can propagate inward from the outer boundary, which determines, in part, the time scale of the flow variability. This work finds the relationship between the outer boundary scale and the time scale of flow variations. In practice, the location of the outer boundary is set by the extent of the sphere of influence of the planet. The measured time variability can be used, in principle, to constrain the parameters of the system (e.g., the strengths of the surface magnetic fields).

Modeling hot Jupiter HD 189733b's Atmosphere to Identify Cloud Presence

A Multiple Scattering Polarized Radiative Transfer Model: Application to HD 189733b

Authors:

Kopparla et al

Abstract:

We present a multiple scattering vector radiative transfer model which produces disk integrated, full phase polarized light curves for reflected light from an exoplanetary atmosphere. We validate our model against results from published analytical and computational models and discuss a small number of cases relevant to the existing and possible near-future observations of the exoplanet HD 189733b. HD 189733b is arguably the most well observed exoplanet to date and the only exoplanet to be observed in polarized light, yet it is debated if the planet's atmosphere is cloudy or clear. We model reflected light from clear atmospheres with Rayleigh scattering, and cloudy or hazy atmospheres with Mie and fractal aggregate particles. We show that clear and cloudy atmospheres have large differences in polarized light as compared to simple flux measurements, though existing observations are insufficient to make this distinction. Futhermore, we show that atmospheres that are spatially inhomogeneous, such as being partially covered by clouds or hazes, exhibit larger contrasts in polarized light when compared to clear atmospheres. This effect can potentially be used to identify patchy clouds in exoplanets. Given a set of full phase polarimetric measurements, this model can constrain the geometric albedo, properties of scattering particles in the atmosphere and the longitude of the ascending node of the orbit. The model is used to interpret new polarimetric observations of HD 189733b in a companion paper.

Magnetospheres of hot Jupiters

Magnetospheres of hot Jupiters: hydrodynamic models & ultraviolet absorption

Authors:

Alexander et al

Abstract:

We present hydrodynamic simulations of stellar wind-magnetosphere interactions in hot Jupiters such as WASP-12b. For fiducial stellar wind rates we find that a planetary magnetic field of a few G produces a large magnetospheric cavity, which is typically 6-9 planetary radii in size. A bow shock invariably forms ahead of the magnetosphere, but the pre-shock gas is only mildly supersonic (with typical Mach numbers of ≃1.6-1.8) so the shock is weak. This results in a characteristic signature in the ultraviolet light curve: a broad absorption feature that leads the optical transit by 10-20% in orbital phase. The shapes of our synthetic light-curves are consistent with existing observations of WASP-12b, but the required near-UV optical depth (τ∼0.1) can only be achieved if the shocked gas cools rapidly. We further show that radiative cooling is inefficient, so we deem it unlikely that a magnetospheric bow shock is responsible for the observed near-UV absorption. Finally, we apply our model to two other well-studied hot Jupiters (WASP-18b and HD209458b), and suggest that UV observations of more massive short-period planets (such as WASP-18b) will provide a straightforward test to distinguish between different models of circumplanetary absorption.

How Astronomers are Starting to Characterize Exoplanets

link.

MOA 2011-BLG-028Lb: a Neptune-mass Microlensing Planet in the Galactic Bulge

MOA 2011-BLG-028Lb: a Neptune-mass Microlensing Planet in the Galactic Bulge

Authors:

Skowron et al

Abstract:

We present the discovery of a Neptune-mass planet orbiting a 0.8 +- 0.3 M_Sun star in the Galactic bulge. The planet manifested itself during the microlensing event MOA 2011-BLG-028/OGLE-2011-BLG-0203 as a low-mass companion to the lens star. The analysis of the light curve provides the measurement of the mass ratio: (1.2 +- 0.2) x 10^-4, which indicates the mass of the planet to be 12-60 Earth masses. The lensing system is located at 7.3 +- 0.7 kpc away from the Earth near the direction to Baade's Window. The projected separation of the planet, at the time of the microlensing event, was 3.1-5.2 AU. Although the "microlens parallax" effect is not detected in the light curve of this event, preventing the actual mass measurement, the uncertainties of mass and distance estimation are narrowed by the measurement of the source star proper motion on the OGLE-III images spanning eight years, and by the low amount of blended light seen, proving that the host star cannot be too bright and massive. We also discuss the inclusion of undetected parallax and orbital motion effects into the models, and their influence onto the final physical parameters estimates.

psi1 Dra Bb and HD 95872b: Two New Jupiter Analogs

Two New Long-Period Giant Planets from the McDonald Observatory Planet Search and Two Stars with Long-Period Radial Velocity Signals Related to Stellar Activity Cycles

Authors:

Endl et al

Abstract:

We report the detection of two new long-period giant planets orbiting the stars HD 95872 and HD 162004 (psi1 Draconis B) by the McDonald Observatory planet search. The planet HD 95872b has a minimum mass of 4.6 M_Jup and an orbital semi-major axis of 5.2 AU. The giant planet psi1 Dra Bb has a minimum mass of 1.5 M_Jup and an orbital semi-major axis of 4.4 AU. Both of these planets qualify as Jupiter analogs. These results are based on over one and a half decades of precise radial velocity measurements collected by our program using the McDonald Observatory Tull Coude spectrograph at the 2.7 m Harlan J. Smith telescope. In the case of psi1 Draconis B we also detect a long-term non-linear trend in our data that indicates the presence of an additional giant planet, similar to the Jupiter-Saturn pair. The primary of the binary star system, psi1 Dra A, exhibits a very large amplitude radial velocity variation due to another stellar companion. We detect this additional member using speckle imaging. We also report two cases - HD 10086 and HD 102870 (beta Virginis) - of significant radial velocity variation consistent with the presence of a planet, but that are probably caused by stellar activity, rather than reflexive Keplerian motion. These two cases stress the importance of monitoring the magnetic activity level of a target star, as long-term activity cycles can mimic the presence of a Jupiter-analog planet.

TW Hydrae Disk Definitely has at Least One .2 Jupiter Mass Gas Giant at ~23 AU

Peering into the Giant Planet Forming Region of the TW Hydrae Disk with the Gemini Planet Imager

Authors:

Rapson et al

Abstract:

We present Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) adaptive optics near-infrared images of the giant planet-forming regions of the protoplanetary disk orbiting the nearby (D = 54 pc), pre-main sequence (classical T Tauri) star TW Hydrae. The GPI images, which were obtained in coronagraphic/polarimetric mode, exploit starlight scattered off small dust grains to elucidate the surface density structure of the TW Hya disk from 80 AU to within 10 AU of the star at 1.5 AU resolution. The GPI polarized intensity images unambiguously con?rm the presence of a gap in the radial surface brightness distribution of the inner disk. The gap is centered near 23 AU, with a width of 5 AU and a depth of 50%. In the context of recent simulations of giant planet formation in gaseous, dusty disks orbiting pre-main sequence stars, these results indicate that at least one young planet with a mass 0.2 M_J could be present in the TW Hya disk at an orbital semi-major axis similar to that of Uranus. If this (proto)planet is actively accreting gas from the disk, it may be readily detectable by GPI or a similarly sensitive, high-resolution infrared imaging system.

A Time Lapse Video of the Installation of the James Webb Space Telescope Mirrors

55 Cancri e's Atmosphere Contains Prussic Acid, Hydrogen, Helium & LOTS of Carbon

For the first time astronomers were able to analyse the atmosphere of an exoplanet in the class known as super-Earths. Using data gathered with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope and new analysis techniques, the exoplanet 55 Cancri e is revealed to have a dry atmosphere without any indications of water vapour. The results, to be published in the Astrophysical Journal, indicate that the atmosphere consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.

The international team, led by scientists from University College London (UCL) in the UK, took observations of the nearby exoplanet 55 Cancri e, a super-Earth with a mass of eight Earth-masses [1]. It is located in the planetary system of 55 Cancri, a star about 40 light-years from Earth.

Using observations made with the Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) on board the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, the scientists were able to analyse the atmosphere of this exoplanet. This makes it the first detection of gases in the atmosphere of a super-Earth. The results allowed the team to examine the atmosphere of 55 Cancri e in detail and revealed the presence of hydrogen and helium, but no water vapour. These results were only made possible by exploiting a newly-developed processing technique.

"This is a very exciting result because it's the first time that we have been able to find the spectral fingerprints that show the gases present in the atmosphere of a super-Earth," explains Angelos Tsiaras, a PhD student at UCL, who developed the analysis technique along with his colleagues Ingo Waldmann and Marco Rocchetto. "The observations of 55 Cancri e's atmosphere suggest that the planet has managed to cling on to a significant amount of hydrogen and helium from the nebula from which it originally formed."

Super-Earths like 55 Cancri e are thought to be the most common type of planet in our galaxy. They acquired the name 'super-Earth' because they have a mass larger than that of the Earth but are still much smaller than the gas giants in the Solar System. The WFC3 instrument on Hubble has already been used to probe the atmospheres of two other super-Earths, but no spectral features were found in those previous studies [2].

55 Cancri e, however, is an unusual super-Earth as it orbits very close to its parent star. A year on the exoplanet lasts for only 18 hours and temperatures on the surface are thought to reach around 2000 degrees Celsius. Because the exoplanet is orbiting its bright parent star at such a small distance, the team was able to use new analysis techniques to extract information about the planet, during its transits in front of the host star.

Observations were made by scanning the WFC3 very quickly across the star to create a number of spectra. By combining these observations and processing them through analytic software, the researchers were able to retrieve the spectrum of 55 Cancri e embedded in the light of its parent star.

"This result gives a first insight into the atmosphere of a super-Earth. We now have clues as to what the planet is currently like and how it might have formed and evolved, and this has important implications for 55 Cancri e and other super-Earths," said Giovanna Tinetti, also from UCL, UK.

Intriguingly, the data also contain hints of the presence of hydrogen cyanide, a marker for carbon-rich atmospheres.

"Such an amount of hydrogen cyanide would indicate an atmosphere with a very high ratio of carbon to oxygen," said Olivia Venot, KU Leuven, who developed an atmospheric chemical model of 55 Cancri e that supported the analysis of the observations.

link.

paper originally posted here on Dec 1st.

Secular Dynamics of S-type Planetary Orbits in Binary Star Systems

Secular Dynamics of S-type Planetary Orbits in Binary Star Systems: Applicability Domains of First- and Second-Order Theories
Authors:

Andrade-Ines et al

Abstract:

We analyse the secular dynamics of planets on S-type coplanar orbits in tight binary systems, based on first- and second-order analytical models, and compare their predictions with full N-body simulations. The perturbation parameter adopted for the development of these models depends on the masses of the stars and on the semimajor axis ratio between the planet and the binary.

We show that each model has both advantages and limitations. While the first-order analytical model is algebraically simple and easy to implement, it is only applicable in regions of the parameter space where the perturbations are sufficiently small. The second-order model, although more complex, has a larger range of validity and must be taken into account for dynamical studies of some real exoplanetary systems such as γ-Cephei and HD 41004A. However, in some extreme cases, neither of these analytical models yields quantitatively correct results, requiring either higher-order theories or direct numerical simulations.

Finally, we determine the limits of applicability of each analytical model in the parameter space of the system, giving an important visual aid to decode which secular theory should be adopted for any given planetary system in a close binary.

The Kepler Dichotomy in Planetary Disks

The Kepler Dichotomy in Planetary Disks: Linking Kepler Observables to Simulations of Late-Stage Planet Formation

Authors:

Moriarity et al

Abstract:

NASA's Kepler Mission uncovered a wealth of planetary systems, many with planets on short-period orbits. These short-period systems reside around 50% of Sun-like stars and are similarly prevalent around M dwarfs. Their formation and subsequent evolution is the subject of active debate. In this paper, we simulate late-stage, in-situ planet formation across a grid of planetesimal disks with varying surface density profiles and total mass. We compare simulation results with observable characteristics of the Kepler sample. We identify mixture models with different primordial planetesimal disk properties that self-consistently recover the multiplicity, period ratio and duration ratio distributions of the Kepler planets. We draw three main conclusions: (1) We favor a "frozen-in" narrative for systems of short period planets, in which they are stable over long timescales, as opposed to metastable. (2) The "Kepler dichotomy", an observed phenomenon of the Kepler sample wherein the architectures of planetary systems appear to either vary significantly or have multiple modes, can naturally be explained by formation within planetesimal disks with varying surface density profiles. Finally, (3) we quantify the nature of the "Kepler dichotomy" for both GK stars and M dwarfs, and find that it varies with stellar type. While the mode of planet formation that accounts for highly multiplistic systems occurs in 24+/-7% of planetary systems orbiting GK stars, it occurs in 63+/-16% of planetary systems orbiting M dwarfs.

How Variable are the Host Stars of 'Small' (2.5 Earth Radius or Less) Exoplanets?

Variability of Kepler Solar-Like Stars Harboring Small Exoplanets

Authors:

Howell et al

Abstract:

We examine Kepler light curve variability on habitable zone transit timescales for a large uniform sample of spectroscopically studied Kepler exoplanet host stars. The stars, taken from Everett et al. (2013) are solar-like in their properties and each harbors at least one exoplanet (or candidate) of radius ≤2.5\re. The variability timescale examined is typical for habitable zone planets orbiting solar-like stars and we note that the discovery of the smallest exoplanets (≤1.2\re) with corresponding transit depths of less than ∼0.18 mmag, occur for the brightest, photometrically quietest stars. Thus, these detections are quite rare in Kepler observations. Some brighter and more evolved stars (subgiants), the latter which often show large radial velocity jitter, are found to be among the photometrically quietest solar-like stars in our sample and the most likely small planet transit hunting grounds. The Sun is discussed as a solar-like star proxy to provide insights into the nature and cause of photometric variability. It is shown that Kepler′s broad, visible light observations are insensitive to variability caused by chromospheric activity that may be present in the observed stars.

Orbital Architecture of Kepler-444A's Rocky ExoPlanets

Orbital Architectures of Planet-Hosting Binaries: I. Forming Five Small Planets in the Truncated Disk of Kepler-444A

Authors:

Dupuy et al

Abstract:

We present the first results from our Keck program investigating the orbital architectures of planet-hosting multiple star systems. Kepler-444 is a metal-poor triple star system that hosts five sub-Earth-sized planets orbiting the primary star (Kepler-444A), as well as a spatially unresolved pair of M dwarfs (Kepler-444BC) at a projected distance of 1.8" (66 AU). We combine our Keck/NIRC2 adaptive optics astrometry with multi-epoch Keck/HIRES RVs of all three stars to determine a precise orbit for the BC pair around A, given their empirically constrained masses. We measure minimal astrometric motion (1.0±0.6 mas yr−1, or 0.17±0.10 km s−1), but our RVs reveal significant orbital velocity (1.7±0.2 km s−1) and acceleration (7.8±0.5 m s−1 yr−1). We determine a highly eccentric stellar orbit (e=0.864±0.023) that brings the tight M dwarf pair within 5.0+0.9−1.0 AU of the planetary system. We validate that the system is dynamically stable in its present configuration via n-body simulations. We find that the A−BC orbit and planetary orbits are likely aligned (98%) given that they both have edge-on orbits and misalignment induces precession of the planets out of transit. We conclude that the stars were likely on their current orbits during the epoch of planet formation, truncating the protoplanetary disk at ≈2 AU. This truncated disk would have been severely depleted of solid material from which to form the total ≈1.5 MEarth of planets. We thereby strongly constrain the efficiency of the conversion of dust into planets and suggest that the Kepler-444 system is consistent with models that explain the formation of more typical close-in Kepler planets in normal, not truncated, disks.

Formation of Terrestrial Planets in Disks with Different Surface Density Profiles

Formation of Terrestrial Planets in Disks with Different Surface Density Profiles

Authors:

Haghighipour et al

Abstract:

We present the results of an extensive study of the final stage of terrestrial planet formation in disks with different surface density profiles and for different orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. We carried out simulations for disk densities proportional to r^-0.5, r^-1, and r^-1.5, and also for partially depleted disks as in the recent model of Mars formation by Izidoro et al (2014). The purpose of our study is to determine how the final assembly of planets and their physical properties are affected by the total mass of the disk and its radial profile. Because of the important roles of secular resonances in orbits and properties of the final planets, we studied the effects of these resonances as well. We have divided this study into two parts. In Part 1, we are interested in examining the effects of secular resonances on the formation of Mars and orbital stability of terrestrial planets. In Part 2, our goal is to determine trends that may exist between the disk surface density profile and the final properties of terrestrial planets. In the context of the depleted disk model, results show that the nu_5 resonance does not have a significant effect on the final orbits of terrestrial planets. However, nu_6 and nu_16 resonances play important roles in clearing their affected areas ensuring that no additional mass will be scattered into the accretion zone of Mars so that it can maintain its mass and orbital stability. In Part 2, our results indicate that despite some small correlations, in general, no trend seems to exist between the disk surface density profile and the mean number of the final planets, their masses, time of formation, and distances to the central star. We present the results of our simulations and discuss their implications for the formation of Mars and other terrestrial planets, as well as the physical properties of these objects such as their masses and water contents.

Terrestrial Worlds Could Acquire Water Through Pebble Accretion Past the Snowline and MIgrate

On the water delivery to terrestrial embryos by ice pebble accretion

Authors:

Sato et al

Abstract:

Standard accretion disk models suggest that the snow line in the solar nebula migrated interior to the Earth's orbit in a late stage of nebula evolution. In this late stage, a significant amount of ice could have been delivered to 1 AU from outer regions in the form of mm to dm-sized "pebbles." This raises the question why the present Earth is so depleted of water (with the ocean mass being as small as 0.023% of the Earth mass). Here we quantify the amount of icy pebbles accreted by terrestrial embryos after the migration of the snow line assuming that no mechanism halts the pebble flow in outer disk regions. We use a simplified version of the coagulation equation to calculate the formation and radial inward drift of icy pebbles in a protoplanetary disk. The pebble accretion cross section of an embryo is calculated using analytic expressions presented by recent studies. We find that the final mass and water content of terrestrial embryos strongly depends on the radial extent of the gas disk, the strength of disk turbulence, and the time at which the snow lines arrives at 1 AU. The disk's radial extent sets the lifetime of the pebble flow, while turbulence determines the density of pebbles at the midplane where the embryos reside. We find that the final water content of the embryos falls below 0.023 wt% only if the disk is compact (less than 100 AU), turbulence is strong at 1 AU, and the snow line arrives at 1 AU later than 2-4 Myr after disk formation. If the solar nebula extended to 300 AU, initially rocky embryos would have evolved into icy planets of 1-10 Earth masses unless the snow-line migration was slow. If the proto-Earth contained water of ~ 1 wt% as might be suggested by the density deficit of the Earth's outer core, the formation of the proto-Earth was possible with weaker turbulence and with earlier (greater than 0.5-2 Myr) snow-line migration.

The Evolution of Planet-Disk Systems That Are Mildly Inclined to the Orbit of a Binary Companion

The Evolution of Planet-Disk Systems That Are Mildly Inclined to the Orbit of a Binary Companion

Authors:

Lublow et al

Abstract:

We determine the evolution of a giant planet-disk system that orbits a member of a binary star system and is mildly inclined with respect to the binary orbital plane. The planet orbit and disk are initially mutually coplanar. We analyze the evolution of the planet and the disk by analytic means and hydrodynamic simulations. We generally find that the planet and the disk do not remain coplanar unless the disk mass is very large or the gap that separates the planet from the disk is very small. The relative planet-disk tilt undergoes secular oscillations whose initial amplitudes are typically of order the initial disk tilt relative to the binary orbital plane for disk masses ~1% of the binary mass or less. The effects of a secular resonance and the disk tilt decay enhance the planet-disk misalignment. The secular resonance plays an important role for disk masses greater than the planet mass. At later times, the accretion of disk gas by the planet causes its orbit to evolve towards alignment, if the disk mass is sufficiently large. The results have several implications for the evolution of massive planets in binary systems.

Radiative Heating by Hot Planetesimals

A New Mechanism for Chondrule Formation: Radiative Heating by Hot Planetesimals

Authors:

Herbst et al

Abstract:

We propose that chondrules are formed by radiative heating of pre-existing dust clumps during close fly-bys of planetesimals with incandescent lava at their surfaces. We show that the required temperatures and cooling rates are easily achieved in this scenario and discuss how it is consistent with bulk aspects of chondritic meteorites, including complementarity and the co-mingling of FeO-poor and FeO-rich chondrules.

Are Time Variations in Close Binary Systems Indicate Exoplanet Presence?

Eclipsing time variations in close binary systems: Planetary hypothesis vs. Applegate mechanism

Authors:

Völschow et al

Abstract:

The observed eclipsing time variations in post-common-envelope binaries (PCEBs) can be interpreted as potential evidence for massive Jupiter-ke planets, or as a result of magnetic activity, leading to quasi-periodic changes in the quadrupole moment of the secondary star. The latter is commonly referred to as the Applegate mechanism. Following Brinkworth et al. (2006), we employ here an improved version of Applegate's model including the angular momentum exchange between a finite shell and the core of the star. The framework is employed to derive the general conditions under which the Applegate mechanism can work, and is subsequently applied to a sample of 16 close binary systems with potential planets, including 11 PCEBs. Further, we present a detailed derivation and study of analytical models which allow for an straightforward extension to other systems. Using our full numerical framework, we show that the Applegate mechanism can clearly explain the observed eclipsing time variations in 4 of the systems, while the required energy to produce the quadrupole moment variations is too high in at least 8 systems. In the remaining 4 systems, the required energy is comparable to the available energy produced by the star, which we consider as borderline cases. Therefore, the Applegate mechanism cannot uniquely explain the observed period time variations for this entire population. Even in systems where the required energy is too high, the Applegate mechanism may provide an additional scatter, which needs to be considered in the derivation and analysis of planetary models.

HD 142527 AB's Protoplanetary Disk Imaged by ALMA

Using ALMA, astronomers have taken a new, detailed look at the very early stages of planet formation around a binary star. Embedded in the outer reaches of a double star's protoplanetary disk, the researchers discovered a striking crescent-shape region of dust that is conspicuously devoid of gas. This result, presented at the AAAS meeting in Washington, D.C., provides fresh insights into the planet-forming potential of a binary system.

Astronomers struggle to understand how planets form in binary star systems. Early models suggested that the gravitational tug-of-war between two stellar bodies would send young planets into eccentric orbits, possibly ejecting them completely from their home system or sending them crashing into their stars. Observational evidence, however, reveals that planets do indeed form and maintain surprisingly stable orbits around double stars.

To better understand how such systems form and evolve, astronomers using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) took a new, detailed look at the planet-forming disk around HD 142527, a binary star about 450 light-years from Earth in a cluster of young stars known as the Scorpius-Centaurus Association.

The HD 142527 system consists of a main star a little more than twice the mass of our Sun and a smaller companion star only about a third the mass of our Sun. They are separated by approximately one billion miles: a little more than the distance from the Sun to Saturn. Previous ALMA studies of this system revealed surprising details about the structure of the system's inner and outer disks.

"This binary system has long been known to harbor a planet-forming corona of dust and gas," said Andrea Isella, an astronomer at Rice University in Houston, Texas. "The new ALMA images reveal previously unseen details about the physical processes that regulate the formation of planets around this and perhaps many other binary systems."

Planets form out of the expansive disks of dust and gas that surround young stars. Small dust grains and pockets of gas eventually come together under gravity, forming larger and larger agglomerations and eventually asteroids and planets. The fine points of this process are not well understood, however. By studying a wide range of protoplanetary disks with ALMA, astronomers hope to better understand the conditions that set the stage for planet formation across the Universe.

ALMA's new, high-resolution images of HD 142527 show a broad elliptical ring around the double star. The disk begins incredibly far from the central star -- about 50 times the Sun-Earth distance. Most of it consists of gases, including two forms of carbon monoxide (13CO and C180), but there is a noticeable dearth of gases within a huge arc of dust that extends nearly a third of the way around the star system.

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Stable and unstable accretion in the classical T Tauri stars IM Lup and RU Lup

Stable and unstable accretion in the classical T Tauri stars IM Lup and RU Lup as observed by MOST

Authors:

Siwak et al

Abstract:

Results of the time variability monitoring of the two classical T Tauri stars, RU Lup and IM Lup, are presented. Three photometric data sets were utilised: (1) simultaneous (same field) MOST satellite observations over four weeks in each of the years 2012 and 2013, (2) multicolour observations at the SAAO in April - May of 2013, (3) archival V-filter ASAS data for nine seasons, 2001 - 2009. They were augmented by an analysis of high-resolution, public-domain VLT-UT2 UVES spectra from the years 2000 to 2012. From the MOST observations, we infer that irregular light variations of RU Lup are caused by stochastic variability of hot spots induced by unstable accretion. In contrast, the MOST light curves of IM Lup are fairly regular and modulated with a period of about 7.19 - 7.58 d, which is in accord with ASAS observations showing a well defined 7.247+/-0.026 d periodicity. We propose that this is the rotational period of IM Lup and is due to the changing visibility of two antipodal hot spots created near the stellar magnetic poles during the stable process of accretion. Re-analysis of RU Lup high-resolution spectra with the Broadening Function approach reveals signs of a large polar cold spot, which is fairly stable over 13 years. As the star rotates, the spot-induced depression of intensity in the Broadening Function profiles changes cyclically with period 3.71058 d, which was previously found by the spectral cross-correlation method.